Representations of Prostitution and
Concubinage in Late Ch'ing and Early
Twentieth Century Chinese Literature
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Traditionally, women have occupied very few roles in China. Young girls were raised in their natal families or as adopted daughters-in-law. When they were old enough, they became maids, prostitutes, concubines, or wives. At some point, a woman could occupy all of these roles, with the possible addition of widow. No matter what role a woman or girl currently filled, she was regarded as the literal or potential sexual property of a man. Nowhere was this sexual ownership more explicit than in the case of prostitutes and concubines. Prostitutes and concubines were virtually interchangeable. Though their roles differed in detail, they served the same basic function in society - the sexual entertainment of men. At first glance, concubines appear much like wives. In fact, however, a concubine's position was much like that of a prostitute. In this paper, I will explore the convergences and divergences of the roles of concubine and prostitute as described in late Ch'ing and early twentieth century Chinese literature. Superficially, prostitution and concubinage appear very different. In spite of their relatively superficial differences, however, prostitution and concubinage were essentially the same thing; concubinage was a form of prostitution.
One story line in Lao She's book Rickshaw addresses many issues of prostitution and concubinage. This story line follows Hsiao Fu Tzu through her sale into concubinage, her return to her family, her entrance into prostitution (first as a streetwalker, then as a brothel resident), and finally, her suicide. Ch'iang, a father in a poor urban household, sold Hsiao Fu Tzu to an army soldier for two hundred dollars when she was nineteen sui. Ch'iang then used the cash to buy new clothes for the family and to redeem all the family's pawned goods, including a rickshaw. After the sale, Ch'iang's feelings of guilt prompted him to increase his drinking. As for the mother, she "wept for her daughter and wore her new blue dress while she sobbed."1 Eventually, Ch'iang beat his wife to death in a drunken rage. In order to pay her funeral expenses, he had to sell the rickshaw.2 Unfortunately, the rickshaw was his means of supporting the family. Without it, he was unable to provide for his two young sons. The loss of the rickshaw would have dire consequences for Hsiang Fu Tzu when she returned. The practice of concubinage and prostitution reinforced the idea that women were commodities. A young man confided his illicit business dealing to his sworn brother, saying that he had not even revealed the secret to his closest concubine. Later this 'brother' turned him in to the authorities and claimed his property, including the two concubines.3 This story demonstrates both the close nature of this young man's relationship with his concubine and his sworn brother's attitude toward concubines and, perhaps, all women. In another instance, after driving his brother to suicide, a man sold his widowed sister-in-law to a brothel. She managed to escape to her old home.4 It was a crime to sell a good girl into prostitution.5 Despite the law, selling a girl into concubinage was still a common practice among poor Chinese families. Concubines were objects of conspicuous consumption. Wealthy men generally had five or six concubines.6 With a wife, several concubines, and attractive maidservants, a wealthy man had many of the benefits of owning his own brothel. One official had six or seven young concubines (seventeen to eighteen sui) and many attractive female servants. In spite of this, when he became ill and another official's wife tried to cure him with a special 'massage' technique, he was very enthusiastic. When his concubines realized that this massage technique was sexual, they attacked, beat, and drove the other official's wife out of the compound.7 As a result of his wife's actions, the official received two appointments. He was proud, not ashamed, of her. Poor girls who "looked like something" knew their parents would eventually sell them into concubinage to "enjoy happiness."8 Hsiao Fu Tzu did not, however, "enjoy happiness." While the soldier occasionally took her to a restaurant or a play, she found his sexual requirements horrible and demeaning. The soldier forced her to read The Spring Palace, a graphic how-to book for newlyweds. This soldier bought a new concubine wherever the army stationed him. For one to two hundred dollars, he received both a domestic and sexual servant. Not only did he obtain a girl who was "guaranteed clean and disease-free," but she was cheaper than an actual servant would have been. When the army moved his unit, he simply left her behind. Hsiao Fu Tzu returned to her family with only an imported cotton print dress and a pair of silver earrings.9 Her master had treated her much better than many of his other concubines. If the soldier did not like his concubine, then "he'd make her squat in the room naked and there wasn't a thing she could do about it."10 Her friend Hu Nui was very jealous of her experience as a concubine. She believed "...Hsiao Fu Tzu was an adequate example of what a woman ought to receive and enjoy."11 Perhaps because she had actually experienced it, Hsiao Fu Tzu was not nearly as enthusiastic about concubinage as her friend. |
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